Candala: Untouchability and Caste in Early India, (Hardcover)

This volume is a collection of essays on untouchability written by Professor Jha at various points of his long and illustrious career. It dwells on the manner in which social stratification in ancient India developed to exclude castes like Caṇḍālas and Niṣādas, leading to their exploitation and sub-human treatment. The book begins with tracing the origin and condition of Caṇḍālas (1000 BC to AD 600), who were first mentioned in later Vedic literature (1000 to 600 BC) at the Purushamedha (symbolic human sacrifice) dedicated to deity Vayu. Another essay examines the acculturation of the Niṣādas--who were mainly fishermen and hunters by profession--which started from the Later Vedic Period. Caṇḍālas and Niṣādas were both over time assimilated into the Brahmanical caste structure as degraded shudras, and ultimately relegated to being untouchables.